Loreto Todd, An Introduction to Linguistics
Content
Chapter 1 What is linguistics? • What is langage? • Language and medium • The components of Language
Chapter 2 Phonology • Phonetics • The organs of speech • Vowels and consonants • Articulation • The international Phonetic Alphabet • Suprasegmentals
Chapter 3 The sounds of English • The phonemes of English • The consonants of English • The vowels of English • Consonant clusters • Stress
Chapter 4 Morphology • Free and bound morphemes • Derivational morphology • Inflectional morphology
Chapter 5 Lexicology • What do we mean by 'word'? • Word-formation • Word-classes
Chapter 6 Syntax • The phrase • The clause • The sentence • Above the sentence • Grammatical, acceptable, interpretable
Chapter 7 Semantics • Polysemy • Synonymy • Antonymy • Hyponymy • Idioms
Chapter 8 Linguistic schools in the 20th century • Traditional Latin-influenced models • Structuralism • Scale and category • Transformational generative grammar • Case grammar
Chapter 9 Branches of linguistics • Sociolinguistics • Psycholinguistics • Applied linguistics • Stylistics
Linguistics
Sociolinguistics
PARTS OF SPEECH & SENTENCE TYPES REVIEW
1. She stumbled but didn’t fall. - SIMPLE SENTENCE - 1 main clause (SVV)
- coord. conj.
COMPOUND SENTENCE:
She stumbled, but she didn’t fall. - 2 main clauses (SV, but SV.)
Although she stumbled, she didn’t fall. - COMPLEX SENTENCE - although (sub. conj.)
She stumbled although she didn’t fall. - COMPLEX SENTENCE
The girl, who is standing there, stumbled. - COMPLEX SENT. - who S, who SV, V.
The girl, standing there, stumbled. - reduced clause ('who is' removed)
The girl (simple S) with red hair (complete S with prepositional phrase) stumbled. (V) - MC - SIMPLE SENTENCE
2. This is nothing but an insult.
except + noun (insult)
prep.
3. She is but a shadow of her old self.
only - adv.
4. There are no buts when it comes to regulations.
noun - -s, no + noun
not verb - not jump
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The Maxims of Conversation activity from earlier
Boys will be boys. – Violates Relation (because irrelevant)
I didn’t jump for joy. – Violates Manner (because ambiguous)
We never do anything important. – Violates Quality (because
might be false)
Room 254, my first class – Violates Quantity (because extra
unnecessary info) and Relation (because that extra info is irrelevant)
Keep walking! – Violates Manner (because ambiguous) and
Quantity (too short)
Keep walking rant – Violates Quantity (because rambling) and
Relation (because irrelevant)
You’ll be standing at the library. – Violates Manner
(because ambiguous)
What Part of Speech is ‘but’
In the English language, the word “but” is also used for multiple purposes. It can serve as a conjunction, a preposition, an adverb, or a noun in
sentences.
1. Conjunction
This word is commonly categorized under conjunctions because it can connect two clauses together and form a single sentence. In the
sample sentence below:
She stumbled but didn’t fall.
The word “but” links together the clauses “she stumbled” and “didn’t fall,” and is therefore considered as a conjunction.
Definition:
a. used to introduce something contrasting with what has already been mentioned
▪ Example:
▪ He was called, but he did not answer.
b. used to indicate the impossibility of anything other than what is being stated
▪ Example:
▪ One cannot but sympathize with the old man.
2. Preposition
Sometimes, the word “but” is classified as a preposition that means “except.” It is commonly used after the words all, any, no, every, none,
nothing, etc. In the sample sentence below:
This is nothing but an insult.
The word “but’ is considered as a preposition that means “other than.”
Definition:
a. except; apart from; other than.
▪ Example:
▪ She teaches nothing but ballet all day long.
3. Adverb
In some cases, the word “but” can be used as an adverb that means “merely,” and can modify a verb or an adjective. For instance, in the
sample sentence below:
She is but a shadow of her old self.
The word “but” is an adverb that can also mean “nothing but” or “only.”
Definition:
a. no more than; only
▪ Example:
▪ He is but a child.
4. Noun
Other times, this word is also categorized as a noun that refers to an argument against something. Take for example, the sentence below:
There are no buts when it comes to regulations.
In this sentence, the word “but” is used as a noun that also means “objection.”
Definition:
a. a reason someone gives for not doing or agreeing with something
▪ Example:
▪ I told you, no buts.